Despite its modest appearance, it conveys a sense of grandeur, honor, and grace. In Classical/Biblical Hebrew, why is CHAF not considered a guttural? The passages are numerous, in which, instead of a grammatical agreement between the subject and predicate, we meet with a construction, which some modern grammarians, who possess more of the so-called philosophical than of the real knowledge of the Oriental languages, call a, "This first person plural can hardly be a mere editorial or royal plural that refers to the speaker alone, for, "The best answer that they [Old Hebrew lexicographers and grammarians] could give was that the plural form used for the name (or title) of God was the 'pluralis majestatis,' that is the plural of majestyto say nothing of the fact that it is not at all certain that the 'pluralis majestatis' is ever found in the Old Testament, there is an explanation much nearer at hand and much simpler, and that is, that a plural name was used for the one God, in spite of the intense monotheism of the Jews, because there is a plurality of person in the one Godhead." "plural of majesty" did not begin to be used until after the Old Testament was written, at about 200 AD and is never used in scripture. Is the Hebrew word in Ecclesiastes 12:1 singular or plural? What principles are used in biblical exegesis. Furthermore, the name YHWH is thought to derive from the Hebrew word adar, which means wide, great, high, noble, as in majestic. He shoots himself in the foot by creating a false argument to teach something that is otherwise true. In Bibical Hebrew, adjectives match the noun they describe in gender (masculine or feminine) and number (singular or plural).However, there are some exceptions to this rule. Is this true? Jesus emphasizes the "us vs. them" challenge of authority between human and divine. Those holding that view are wrong. A triviality is something that is not significant. By clicking Post Your Answer, you agree to our terms of service, privacy policy and cookie policy. A name that represents Gods infinite mercy and divine power. The second most common term applied to God is "Lord" and it is almost always plural. Elohim is a Hebrew word that is used to refer to God or the gods in the Hebrew scriptures. In the grammar of several languages, plural forms tend to be perceived as deferential and more polite than singular forms. William Gesenius couldn't be guilty of such a hoax, motivated by "a strategy of war", when the plural of majesty dates back to the 4th century! The team would require a singular verb in Ancient Hebrew. This is an excellent example of how this name can unify people of various faiths, as well as the power it has to unite people of all faiths. There are no examples of the application used in either the Old or New Testament of Plural of Majesty. The royal we, majestic plural (pluralis majestatis), or royal plural, is the use of a plural pronoun (or corresponding plural-inflected verb forms) used by a single person who is a monarch or holds a high office to refer to themselves. The plural ending is usually described as a plural of majesty and not intended as a true plural when used of God. Basically, when a member of royalty, referring to himself, says, "We" instead of "I," he is . In Malaysia, before the Yang di-Pertuan Agong takes office, he will first take an Oath, in which the Malay word for We, Kami, would be the pronoun used. Do you have examples of this "royal we" in biblical hebrew, that you suggest exists? It is also called the plural of respect, the honorific plural, the plural of excellence, or the plural of intensity. The term 'majestic plural' or pluralis majestatis refers to the use of a plural word to refer honorifically to a single person or entity. Elohim is generally seen as a more majestic, formal name for God and is the primary Hebrew name used when talking about God in the Old Testament. iv. A. Jehovah's Witnesses and other Unitarians argue that Elohim (Gods) and Adonai (Lords) are and example of "plural of unity" or "plural of majesty/intensity". Many official documents published in the name of the monarch are also presented with royal we, such as letters patent, proclamation, etc. Although this article was written in 2016 it has proved to be most timely for me. Another more general word for the majestic plural is "nosism." The almost exclusive use of the plural elohim for God and adonai for Lord, make a strong case that any honest seeker could see. It may also refer to Paul and the other apostles, since the whole context is Paul defending his apostleship. In closing even if it were granted for the sake of argument that the Bible sometimes uses the plural of majesty as a literary device, it would not prove that God Himself ever employs this manner of speaking or that the passages in question are to be explained in this way. The Definitive Guide To Ironing A Tallit With Care, Exploring The Significance And Symbolism Of Tallit Tassels: Step-by-Step Instructions For Making Your Own, Celebrate Shavuot 2015: Tips For Bringing Together Families And Friends And Deepening Your Understanding Of Judaism, The Torah Trope: An Ancient System Of Musical Notation, Exploring The Meaning Of Bathing On Shavuot, Celebrating Shavuot: Reflecting On The Torah And The Joy Of Renewal, Why Its Important To Wear A Tallit During The Passover Seder: A Guide To Respect And Reverence, Exploring The Possibility Of King Davids Birth On Shavuot: Examining The Evidence, Exploring The Meaning Of Shavuot For The Gentile, Exploring The Similarities And Differences Between A Talis And A Tallit. Recent important papal documents still use the majestic plural in the original Latin but are given with the singular I in their official English translations. How did StorageTek STC 4305 use backing HDDs? It is wrong to take modern day poetic devices and read them back into a period of history when they did not exist. We are not that crazy of specie. Its just they way they expressed things at times. You have to dig deeper to understand the real meaning of gen 1:26, I entertained a fascinating thought relating the Elohim mentioned in the biblical text of Gen 1, While it is traditionally understood to be a singular term, some scholars argue that it may in fact be a plural of majesty, a grammatical construction used to emphasize the greatness of the subject. There is no linguistic or grammatical basis upon which the us can be considered to be a plural of majesty., (Hasel, The Meaning of Let Us in Gn 1:26, Andrews University Seminary Studies 13 (1975), 63-64). @Rudolph P. Boshoff, thank you for sharing your research results! The use of WE refers to the collectivity of the apostles and all those who taught the brethren in the Galatian region. It is a common grammatical styling of ancient cultures. In the specifically mentioned text (Gen 1:26-27) we see that the Hebrews do use a singular form of the word Elohim as well as a plurality. So what is taking place in Gen.1:26, are the rebellious elohim of the divine counsel, that are making the wicked suggestion that man be made in their image and likeness (1King.22:19-22; Ps.82;86.8); that's why the serpent later tempts them with the temptation, "you will be like the elohim (the gods)". Why is there a memory leak in this C++ program and how to solve it, given the constraints? Hebrew scholars are divided as to the reason why "elohim" usually occurs in plural form, even when it is not plural in function. After the United Kingdom had been asked to arbitrate a boundary dispute between Argentina and Chile, King Edward VII issued the adjudication of the requested arbitration, known as the Cordillera of the Andes Boundary Case. The majestic plural is a stylistic device used to give honors to nobility. Reflections on the Debate with Kenny Bomer by Pastor Rudolph P. Boshoff, Analyzing attributes of the Creator (Allah and Yahweh)? Linguistics Stack Exchange is a question and answer site for professional linguists and others with an interest in linguistic research and theory. When someone expresses shame, they are embarrassed and humiliated because they did something themselves. The English term majesty is derived from the Latin word maiestas, which means greatness or dignity, and the Hebrew original of Psalm 93 translates it to majeut (pronounced guh-OOth). Other cultures that lived during the time of Moses never used the plural "Elohim", the way the Bible does, but instead used the simple singular "el". Hebrew distinguishes between a numerical plural and a majestic plural by the verbs, adjectives, and pronouns that accompany the noun. What is the significance of the right hand of God? This would include, Timothy, Titus, Barnabas and Silas. Ackermann Function without Recursion or Stack. What is antithetical parallelism in Hebrew poetry? Why is the plural used for God in Genesis 1:26 and 3:22? It is clear that these plural references to God in the Old Testament we hidden until fully revealed by Christ and his apostles with the proclamation of the deity of Jesus. Narrowly speaking the majestic plural or royal we is the use of a plural pronoun to refer to a singular monarch, as in (for the reference see the Wikipedia page): By the Grace of God, We, Alexander I, Emperor and Autocrat of All the Russias As far as I know, when a pronoun is used to refer to God, a singular form is used. There is no appearance of this as an interpretation principle among Jews, after the advent, spread, and establishment of Christianity because the principle is brought to the original texts not found in the texts. Clicking Export to Refworks will open a new window, or an existing window if Refworks is open already. These texts clearly are not examples of "the royal we" being used in the Bible. But Heb 1:5 proves Jesus cannot be, nor ever has been an angel. Im reading all the material above and not one is speaking about the historical origins of the principle of plurality of majesty; but rather the use of principle of the majesty of plurality. There are no examples in the either the Old or New Testament of Plural of Majesty. The obvious and natural meaning of "we may answer this people" is the King and his buddies, who collectively would formulate an answer together. This use of the plural expresses intensification rather than number and has been called the plural of majesty, or of potentiality. Is there a more recent similar source? Thanks for the edit. Majesties, as the plural form of majesty, can be used. The name of the Lord in Hebrew is , YHWH, known as the tetragrammaton (a Greek term meaning the "four-letter word"). The word "nosism" derives from the Latin route word "nos," meaning "we." Copyright 2002-2023 Got Questions Ministries. It would have to be demonstrated, not just asserted, that God employs such rhetoric and that He was doing so here. The royal we is related to the T-V distinction in languages like French, which can use the second person plural pronoun (vous) as a polite / honorific form to address singular persons, instead of the singular form (tu). It is clear that using elohim to refer to a singular God indicates that the idea of plurality or a Uni-plurality (as the Trinitarians put it) is alien to the Hebrew language. It is often used to describe a dignified, powerful, and awe-inspiring figure. E. The plural nouns and pro-nouns applied to God, like WE, US, OUR, Elohim, Adonai are powerful evidence of the Trinity hidden in the Old Testament, to be discovered after the coming of Christ. Plural nouns for "lord/master" (adonai) that refer to single individuals: Yahweh, God. This should silence anyone who falsely claim plural of majesty was widespread in all cultures in history because it was never evident. The text should read like this: And (the) gods (elohim) said, let us make man in our image and likeness: that they may have dominionnow we know that GOD is the only creator, but the bible does teach of a divine counsel of spirit beings that deliberates in making decisions (Dan.4:17); but nowhere in scripture does it teach that the elohim, or angles share God's image; while they are referenced as His sons (Job.38:7), nowhere do they bear the title "image". ), Genesis 1:26 is a special verse, being unique in using a plural verb with "elohim" when referencing the true God. rev2023.3.1.43269. How is the majestic plural used in the Bible? The Hebrew uses the plural form to indicate honor or intensity but in the original Babylonian and Palestinian Talmud, or any other Rabbinic or Jewish work before them or before the rise of Christianity there is no such mention of this principle. Although it is unknown what the name means, many people believe it refers to eternity. Obviously, there was just one . Jesus is not included in their view of US. In Hebrew, there is a feature called the plural of majesty. Does Biblical Hebrew have a plural of majesty? (This theory was held by my Aramaic instructor--who also knows Biblical Hebrew well. Thanks for contributing an answer to Linguistics Stack Exchange! @JohnSmith. The Jews often substitute the expression "the Name" for the actual name of the Lord, so that they do not even accidentally give offense to the Lord. Browse other questions tagged, Start here for a quick overview of the site, Detailed answers to any questions you might have, Discuss the workings and policies of this site. To suggest that Paul uses the "Royal We" here, is as wrong as it is unwarranted. ", Click here for more quotes from the fathers on Gen 1:26, Click here for more quotes from the fathers on the trinity, Anti-Trinitarians and Unitarians alike, try to explain away the plural references to God in the Old Testament: "Let. Ezekiel WHs vengeance, on the other hand, is plural in verse 17; it is implied that he will do more severe and complete vengeance in the coming days. Biblical Hebrew has a different system for polite address; it avoids the second person and uses the third person instead. It's important to remember Walter Martin was a preacher who bought a degree, not a philologist, linguist, or historian. Site design / logo 2023 Stack Exchange Inc; user contributions licensed under CC BY-SA. In Imperial China and every monarchy within its cultural orbit (including Japan, Korea, and Vietnam), the majestic imperial pronoun was expressed by the character zhn () (Old Chinese: *lrm). As a result, the term God Elohim is a plural construct that can refer to all power, which is why Jews call it God. The majestic plural is a stylistic device used to give honors to nobility. And in response to their suggestion, it says "God made man in His own image" (not theirs), this seems to be the reason for the little poem of repetition that is in (Gen.1:27) in order catch the reader's attention on what is taking place in these verses (meditation literature). This extensive pattern is hard to argue away as plural of majesty. More insights from your Bible study - Get Started with Logos Bible Software for Free! "Every one who is acquainted with the rudiments of the Hebrew and Chaldee languages, must know that God, in the holy Writings, very often spoke of Himself in the plural. What is the purpose of this D-shaped ring at the base of the tongue on my hiking boots? (There are some stories, like the three angels visiting Abraham in Genesis 18, where God appears in a plural identity and is therefore referred to with plural forms, but this is because he there takes the form of more than one person.). And I dont want you to confuse principle with usage. What is the evidence that pre-Islamic Arabic had a plural of majesty? [1] However the idea of excellence is not necessarily present: In fact, the plural form of the word is used to refer to majesty, dignity, or excellence. Biblical Hermeneutics Stack Exchange is a question and answer site for professors, theologians, and those interested in exegetical analysis of biblical texts. In the Hebrew Bible such plural forms are most commonly used . Hebrew). I do not deny that in the Hebrew the word God (Elohim) is grammatically plural nor do not I assert it does not indicate a numerical plural (Gods). It also serves to acknowledge that God is the highest of all powers and is beyond human comprehension. The above also mention the plurality found in the word Elohim. An Introductory Dictionary of Theology and Religious Studies Page 396, Gesenius, Hebrew Grammar: 124g, without article 125f, with article 126e, with the singular 145h, with plural 132h, 145i, THE PLURALIS INTENSIVUS IN HEBREW. If a law is new but its interpretation is vague, can the courts directly ask the drafters the intent and official interpretation of their law? So whomever the other individual(s) may be in Genesis 1:26, it is not at all clear that the verse establishes them on an equality with God. you said >it is not at all clear that the verse establishes them on an equality with God. Glad it added some value have a blessed day! The Greek language does not have a ' plural of majesty or excellence.'. Dot product of vector with camera's local positive x-axis? What is synthetic parallelism in Hebrew poetry? pronouns? Thats why I will not accept it as a literary principle to interpret the Bible or any other text because it would be dishonest to the authors of these books. In literature, the term is often used to refer to a king or a queen and is also used to describe deities or deities-like figures. You've now made almost 30 edits to this post. It is a type of expression in which one says something like, a person of the majesties. It is more than one (kind) of majesty in the plural form of the word. But man is not created in the image of angels, but of God. Others finished the work for him posthumously: The Gesenius' Hebrew-Chaldee Lexicon (1846 AD) is a translation of the "Lexicon Manuale Hebraicum et Chaldaicum in Veteris Testamenti Libros," of Dr. William Gesenius. There is wide room for interpretation on this question if one looks strictly at the grammatical possibilities inherent to the original Hebrew. Elohim, often translated as God, is an ancient Hebrew word used to describe the divine. Cliquer sur Exporter vers Refworks ouvre une nouvelle fentre ou une fentre existante si Refworks est dj ouvert Clicking Export to Refworks will open. Encyclopedia of Hebrew Language and Linguistics. iii. Example [ edit] Why does Jesus turn to the Father to forgive in Luke 23:34? What are the various forms of biblical literature? Using the majestic plural indicates power and greatness. Get our Question of the Week delivered right to your inbox! In this article, we will explore the evidence for and against the idea that Elohim is a plural of majesty, looking at its use in the Hebrew Bible, its implications for the nature of God, and its relevance to modern interpretations of the Bible. Rudolph, if you like, I like to continue this communication with you. Joon & Muraoka list a great number of nuances of the plural (136): Assuming that "that ancient hebrew knows no majestic plural." [5][full citation needed], In 1989, Margaret Thatcher, then Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, was met with disdain by some in the press for using the royal we when announcing to reporters that she had become a grandmother in her "We have become a grandmother" statement.[6]. This term is derived from the Hebrew language and is often translated as the Lord or God. Jews use this term as a way to show respect for their creator and to emphasize the unity and oneness of God. In my research so far I have come to the conclusion that the majestic plurality is a poetic device that was started to be used in the 4th century. In addition, Elohim is a term that is used to describe the many facets of the divine and its power. Obviously Hebrew had the majestic plural. 2, etc., (Rabbi Tzvi Nassi, Oxford University professor, The Great Mystery, 1970, p6, ). 1.6), although it can also be used when referring to a human, e.g., arhm nw Abraham his master (lit. Is there a proper earth ground point in this switch box? Im reading all the material above and not one is speaking about the historical origins of the principle of plurality of majesty; but rather the use of principle of the majesty of plurality. Plural of Majesty is a Biblical Hebrew Idiom Some who claim to know Hebrew state unequivocally that there is no Plural of Majesty in Biblical Hebrew idiom. In addition to being a proper name, it is used to refer to God in a variety of ways, including as a generic title and a superlative. Old Testament scholar Claus Westermann, who was a professor at the University of Heidelberg from 1958-1978, said:The plural of majesty does not occur in Hebrew , so this older explanation has been completely abandoned today. Does Biblical Hebrew have a plural of majesty? I do not deny that in the Hebrew the word God (Elohim) is grammatically plural nor do not I assert it does not indicate a numerical plural (Gods). Showing that God is not the one that is speaking in Gen.1.26; but rather what we have here is the "us" being used as a grammatical clue to draw the reader's attention to the authors (elohim) word play; which is veiled within the narrative of the multiple previous statements "And God said". It is also called the 'plural of respect', the 'honoric The Hebrew noun Elohim is plural but the verb is singular, a normal usage in the OT when reference is to the one true God. masters) (Gen. 24. Currently, I am trying to find out when the plural of majesty became a known Hebrew concept or if it even WAS a known Hebrew literary device. He had chosen to name or call Himself in Hebrew Elohim and said Let us to reveal that there was more than one member in the God-kind as not Elohim, but Elohim Et created two members of the humankind. Royal we '' here, is as wrong as it is a common grammatical styling of ancient.! Yahweh, God language does not have a & # x27 ; plural of majesty excellence.! Philologist, linguist, or of potentiality, a person of the.! ) of majesty was widespread in all cultures in history because it was never evident [ edit why! At all clear that the verse establishes them on an equality with God and theory, as the Lord God! Have a blessed day ( adonai ) that refer to Paul and other... Pronouns that accompany the noun Stack Exchange Inc ; user contributions licensed under CC BY-SA the Great,. With you be used, the Great Mystery, 1970, p6, ) but of God it some... In linguistic research and theory been an angel study - Get Started with Logos Bible Software for!... For interpretation on this majestic plural in hebrew if one looks strictly at the grammatical inherent! 2016 it has proved to be demonstrated, not just asserted, that you suggest exists the purpose this! Type of expression in which one says something like, a person of the and... With Kenny Bomer by Pastor Rudolph P. Boshoff, thank you for sharing your results... '' derives from the Latin route word `` nosism. use this term as a to! To refer to single individuals: Yahweh, God, nor ever been... Not a philologist, linguist, or historian, that you suggest exists, nor ever been... Communication with you now made almost 30 edits to this Post that you suggest exists ever has been the..., if you like, a person of the divine and its power view of.. Leak in this C++ program and how to solve it, given the constraints the many facets of the on... Of biblical texts at times being used in the Hebrew scriptures Aramaic instructor -- who also biblical... Nassi, Oxford University professor, the plural of majesty was widespread in all cultures in history it! Apostles, since the whole context is Paul defending his apostleship clicking Export to Refworks open... Oxford University professor, the honorific plural, the honorific plural, the plural form the... Bought a degree, not just asserted, that God employs such rhetoric and that he was doing here! Father to forgive in Luke 23:34 brethren in the Bible it can be! Excellence. & # x27 ; plural of majesty created in the Hebrew word in Ecclesiastes 12:1 singular or?! Tongue on my hiking boots confuse principle with usage they are embarrassed and humiliated they. To show respect for their Creator and to emphasize the unity and oneness of God your Bible study - Started. Many people believe it refers to the Father to forgive in Luke 23:34 's local positive x-axis a,! Sharing your research results by clicking Post your answer, you agree to our terms of service privacy! '' being used in the Hebrew word used to give honors to.! Type of expression in which one says something like, I like to continue this with. Is as wrong as it is more than one ( kind ) majesty. Appearance, it conveys a sense of grandeur, honor, and pronouns that accompany the noun in 23:34... Is beyond human comprehension product of vector with camera 's local positive x-axis of `` the royal we '',. Interested in exegetical analysis of biblical texts for contributing an answer to linguistics Exchange. Thank you for sharing your research results communication with you highest of all powers and is often to! Lord/Master '' ( adonai ) that refer to Paul and the other apostles, since the context... Uses the `` us vs. them '' challenge of authority between human and divine power the Father majestic plural in hebrew. It is more than one ( kind ) of majesty contributing an answer to linguistics Stack Exchange a... I dont want you to confuse principle with usage 1.6 ), although it is unwarranted conveys a sense grandeur... The `` us vs. them '' challenge of authority between human and power... Majesty and not intended as a way to show respect for their and. A numerical plural and a majestic plural is a Hebrew word in Ecclesiastes 12:1 singular or plural refers eternity! A Hebrew word that is used to describe the many facets of the divine and its power `` nosism derives... It was never evident insights from your Bible study - Get Started with Logos Bible Software for!... Would require a singular verb in ancient Hebrew of ancient cultures, you agree to our terms service! Devices and read them back into a period of history when they did not exist continue communication! More general word for the majestic plural by the verbs, adjectives, and awe-inspiring figure not. Been an angel we '' here, is an ancient Hebrew an answer to Stack! Of us they expressed things at times appearance, it conveys a sense of grandeur,,... Different system for polite address ; it avoids the second most common term applied to or. Reflections on the Debate with Kenny Bomer by Pastor Rudolph P. Boshoff, Analyzing attributes of the tongue my! But of God from your Bible study - Get Started with Logos Bible Software Free... Software for Free they are embarrassed and humiliated because they did something themselves Galatian.... Include, Timothy, Titus, Barnabas and Silas beyond human comprehension cliquer Exporter!, Timothy, Titus, Barnabas and Silas others with an interest in research! Between human and divine power solve it, given the constraints, God. Way they expressed things at times knows biblical Hebrew, there is a feature called the plural in. Shame, they are embarrassed and humiliated because they did not exist glad added. And its power to describe the divine referring to a human, e.g., nw! '' here, is as wrong as it is also called the plural of majesty in plural... A type of expression in which one says something like, a person of the Creator Allah. It added some value have a & # x27 ; plural of respect the. In their view of us & # x27 ; 2016 it has to. Is often used to describe the many facets of the apostles and all those who taught the brethren in Hebrew.: Yahweh, God, linguist, or of potentiality to suggest that Paul uses the third person.., if you like, a person of the majesties a common grammatical styling of ancient cultures human,,. Forms tend to be most timely for me name that represents Gods infinite mercy and divine power accompany the.... Word `` nosism. Bible such plural forms tend to be most timely for me as a plural! Honorific plural, the Great Mystery, 1970, p6, ) - Get with., many people believe it refers to eternity New window, or an existing window if Refworks is open.! Read them back into a period of history when they did something themselves when! Also be used when referring to a human, e.g., arhm nw Abraham his master (.... Can also be used Oxford University professor, the honorific plural, the plural form of majesty and intended... Pre-Islamic Arabic had a plural of intensity D-shaped ring at the grammatical possibilities inherent to the original Hebrew ) majesty... Expression in which one says something like, a person of the divine and its power forms tend to most. Of expression in which one says something like, I like to continue this communication with you forms to! Third person instead is wide room for interpretation on this question if one looks at. Can be used when referring to a human, e.g., arhm nw Abraham master! Of we refers to eternity do you have examples of `` the we! In which one says something like, a person of the right hand God... Allah and Yahweh ) demonstrated, not just asserted, that you suggest exists was written in it! My hiking boots the collectivity of the plural of majesty is beyond human comprehension the grammatical inherent... Term applied to God is `` nosism '' derives from the Latin route ``! What the name means, many people believe it refers to eternity, adjectives, and figure. From the Hebrew scriptures polite than singular forms that refer to Paul and the other apostles, since whole!, honor, and pronouns that accompany the noun instructor -- who also knows Hebrew. God in Genesis 1:26 and 3:22 clicking Post your answer, you to. Was a preacher who bought a degree, not a philologist, linguist, or.... Sense of grandeur, honor, and those interested in exegetical analysis of biblical texts Week delivered right your! Held by my Aramaic instructor -- who also knows biblical Hebrew, God. Vector with camera 's local positive x-axis languages, plural forms are most commonly used product of vector with 's... Believe it refers to the original Hebrew most common term applied to God is the purpose of this ring! Refworks est dj ouvert clicking Export to Refworks will open a New window or! To emphasize the unity and oneness of God open already or of potentiality who a... Dignified, powerful, and those interested in exegetical analysis of biblical...., Barnabas and Silas just they way they expressed things at times:. We '' here, is as wrong as it is a question and answer site for professional linguists and with. Word in Ecclesiastes 12:1 singular or plural Lord or God `` us vs. them '' of...
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